Big Bend National Park ⓘ

In 1944, American’s attention was focused on distant lands as the Second World War raged around the globe. Despite a world in political turmoil and an uncertain future, it was the year that Big Bend National Park was set aside for public benefit and enjoyment.

On theater screens across the country Laurance Olivier was starring in Shakespeare’s "Henry V" and Gene Autry sang "Don’t Fence Me In." It cost merely three cents to mail a first class letter. Scientists at Harvard University construct the first automatic, general-purpose digital computer. DNA is isolated by Oswald Avery. Pensive, a bright chestnut Thoroughbred racehorse, wins the Kentucky Derby. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected to an unprecedented fourth term in office. On June 6, American and British troops made their famous D-Day landing on the shores of Normandy, which would turn the tide of the war and change the course of history. Half a world away, only a week later, Big Bend was officially established as a national park.

What made Big Bend so important that a President would shift his focus from a world in turmoil to the wilderness of southwest Texas? It was a noble purpose. To set something aside for future generations with the fate of the present generation still uncertain was an act of optimism in an uncertain world.

The Big Bend country was a rancher’s dream. Native grasses were abundant and there was adequate water in the form of creeks and springs. Land was cheap and held promise for anyone with the guts and ambition to give it a try. Many place names familiar to park visitors today came from this ranching era: Hannold Draw, Rice Tank, and the Sam Nail and Homer Wilson ranches are but a few examples. Coincidentally, one of the top songs of 1944, "Don’t Fence Me In," seemed particularly applicable to Big Bend ranchers. In the early days, they practiced open range ranching. Only in later years would some of the ranchers find it necessary to fence in their land. Ranching in the Big Bend was not an easy life, but it was home.

While the creation of the national park was a popular notion with most Americans, it was not a decision easily accepted by many of the ranchers who were told they would have to sell their land. Under these conditions, many ranchers allowed cattle, sheep, and goat herds to increase in size to the detriment of the grasslands on which they fed. This overgrazing hastened erosion and changed the appearance of desert plant communities.

The region was named Big Bend for the drastic change in course of the river from a southeastern to a northeastern flow. As the Rio Grande flows through the Chihuahuan Desert, it carves not only majestic canyons, but also a political boundary. Big Bend’s location on the United States/Mexico border has always provided a mystique to the park.

Before the area would be suitable for visitors, roads, trails, and facilities needed to be developed. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), an agency born out of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, provided an ideal work force. The CCC was a program designed to alleviate unemployment for thousands of young men while at the same time conserving natural resources. Several hundred young men, most of whom were Hispanic, worked in the Chisos Mountains between 1934 and 1942. Using only picks, shovels, rakes, and a dump truck, the CCC workers surveyed and built the seven-mile access road into the Chisos Mountains Basin. The course of the road and stone culverts have remained basically unchanged over the past seventy years. Later, CCC work crews built the Lost Mine Trail and several stone and adobe cottages in the Basin. It is a lasting tribute to the "CCC boys" that their hard work and skilled labor are still being enjoyed by park visitors today.

It would take several years and much hard work for the national park to become a reality. In the midst of the Great Depression, park supporters had to come up with the money to purchase all the land within the proposed park area. In 1942, $1.5 million was allocated by the State of Texas to purchase approximately 600,000 acres from private owners.

The State of Texas delivered the deed to the Federal Government in September, 1943 and Big Bend National Park was officially established on June 12, 1944. Within a few weeks, the park located its headquarters in the CCC barracks in the Basin. In its first year, Big Bend recorded 1,409 visitors. In recent years annual visitation has increased to over 500,000!

The original plans for the national park included a hospital in the Chisos Mountains Basin as well as a large resort hacienda that would have been built by the CCC if World War II had not occurred. There was also a plan for a two-hundred thousand acre longhorn cattle ranch to be located within the proposed Big Bend National Park. The construction of a cog railroad from the Chisos Basin to the South Rim was also considered.

Although some of these plans never became reality, Big Bend did become a national park. Unforseen designations have also brought Big Bend international attention. In 1976, Big Bend was recognized by the United Nations as an "International Biosphere Reserve." This designation identifies Big Bend as a prominent example of the Chihuahuan Desert ecosystem and holds opportunities for biological research and environmental monitoring.

As the increase in visitation over the past sixty years testifies, more and more people are discovering the pleasures of a visit to one of the most inspiring and diverse parks in the country. Big Bend is a place to relax, to contemplate the pace of the natural world, to challenge one's own outdoor skills, to study wildlife or plants, and to simply enjoy the splendor of wilderness.

At the end of the last ice age, the climate was much cooler and wetter, and woodlands covered much of the Big Bend. Since about 9000 BCE. the climate has gradually become warmer and drier, and there has been a gradual influx of heat- and drought-adapted plants. Evidence of Paleo-lndian presence has been recorded in the park but no studies have been done which explain local human adaptation during this period. The earliest inhabitants lived a nomadic hunting and gathering lifestyle that was adapted to the cooler and wetter climate that prevailed in that age. Throughout the Paleo-lndian period, indigenous people hunted large game animals as their primary source of materials for food, clothing, and shelter.

After the last glacial episode, woodlands gave way to arid-adapted plant communities at lower elevations. The slowly changing climate caused a decline in the numbers of large game animals, primarily bison. Native American groups of the Archaic Period adapted to the changing climate by developing a hunting and gathering lifestyle so successful that it remained virtually unchanged for about 7500 years. The Archaic Period people hunted smaller game with a spear that was propelled by a spear-thrower, called an atlatl. This period is characterized by a strong dependence on plant foods, and a more structured social organization. People learned skillful ways to exploit the environment and developed a rich material culture that involved the intensive use of available plants and animals. A higher density of late Archaic sites indicates a more efficient adaptation and larger, denser population. An expansion of the Jornada Mogollon culture from southeastern New Mexico into extreme West Texas occurred at the close of the Late Archaic.

By 1000 CE the native people of the Big Bend had come under the influence of the Jornada Mongollon, with its ceramics, agriculture, and sedentary lifestyle. During the Late Prehistoric, indigenous peoples of the Big Bend began using the bow and arrow, and groups northwest of the area were producing pottery. Agricultural villages existed near present-day Presidio, Texas, and horticulture or simple agriculture was practiced by indigenous groups in the area that is now the park. In most areas to the east, the Late Archaic hunting and gathering lifeway persisted into the Historic Period. The period is characterized by increased interregional trading.

During the early Historic Period several Native American groups were recorded as inhabiting the Big Bend. The Chisos were a loosely organized group of nomadic hunters and gatherers who probably practiced limited agriculture. The name Chiso (Chizo) originally referred to one band (also known as the Cauitaome or Taquitatome) but the Spaniards extended it to include at least six closely associated bands. Their origin is not known but they were associated with the Concho speaking indigenous groups of northeastern Chihuahua and northwestern Coahuila. Their language group is a variation of Uto-Aztecan, a language whose speakers ranged from central Mexico to the Great Basin of the U.S. and includes the Aztec, Toltec, and the modern Hopi. The Jumano were a nomadic people who traveled and traded throughout western Texas and southeastern New Mexico but some historic records indicate they were enemies of the Chisos. Around the beginning of the 18th century (1700 CE), the Mescalero Apaches entered the Big Bend region, eventually displacing or absorbing the Chisos. The last aboriginal group to use the Big Bend was the Comanche who passed through along the Great Comanche Trail on their way to and from periodic raids deep into Mexico. These raids continued until the mid-1800s.

Archeological Survey Report 2023 NEW A Sampling of Archeological Resources in Big Bend National Park, Texas Center for Big Bend Studies / Sul Ross University 1000 pages. 50 MB

Archeology is defined as the study of the remains of the past culture of a people. Archeologists recover such things as samples of soil, pollen, charcoal, feces, chipped rock debris, and artifacts and then analyze these samples for evidence of food gathering and hunting technology, food processing, diet, and many other facets of subsistence activity. They use technical methods which include controlled excavation, extensive site recording through written field notes, drawings, maps, and photographs. These methods are designed to gain a maximum amount of information with a minimum amount of site destruction. Through careful scientific study, archeologists try to recover the pieces of the past that help us better understand how mankind has learned, developed, and succeeded or failed. As citizens of this country and this world, we can appreciate the story of mankind's past. Perhaps the lessons we learn from the past will help us be better stewards of our fragile planet, now and in the future. By protecting the material cultural remains here in Big Bend National Park, we help to preserve this heritage for future generations to enjoy.

There still is much to learn about the prehistory of Big Bend National Park. A complete understanding of man's past is totally dependent upon the scientific study of the sites and artifacts that have survived the ravages of time. Archaeological research in Big Bend National Park is scanty, and an intensive survey of the total park has never been done. Two early archaeological surveys (1936–37 and 1966–67) sampled only a portion of the park. However, the two surveys recorded a total of 628 sites and the latter survey revealed that the park probably contains more than 5,000 archeological sites. In 2002, the National Park Service made a quantitative estimate based upon more recent data which suggests that there are nearly 26,000 sites in the park.

Thousands of archaeological sites within the park hold remnants of the material remains of 10,000 years of Native American occupation of the Big Bend. When properly studied, these sites can provide very valuable information about past lifeways. At Big Bend National Park only two prehistoric archaeological sites are presently considered "public": The Hot Springs pictograph site and the Chimneys. As research is completed on other sites they may also be opened to the public. There are eight National Register historic sites or districts in Big Bend National Park, including the Castolon Historic District, Hot Springs Historic District, the Mariscal Mining District, the Homer Wilson Ranch Site, Rancho Estelle, and Luna's Jacal. Unfortunately many of the park's archeological and historical sites have been vandalized and valuable information has been destroyed or removed by artifact collectors. Casual artifact collecting by the park visitor has resulted in the loss and destruction of much evidence of the past, information which could otherwise be obtained through scientific investigation. Archaeological sites are protected by the Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979. Under this act, people who disturb these cultural resources can be fined up to $10,000 and sentenced to up to six months in prison for their first offense. Information about sites is exempt from the Public Freedom of Information Act. Clearly, citizens and lawmakers view our cultural heritage as valuable, irreplaceable, and worthy of protection and preservation.

Man’s prehistoric occupation of the Big Bend is generally divided into five periods: Paleo-Indian, Early Archaic, Middle Archaic, Late Archaic and Late Prehistoric. Throughout the Paleo-Indian Period (10,000 – 6500 B.C.), the Indians depended primarily on large game for food, clothing, and shelter. As the climate changed at the end of the last ice age becoming warmer and drier), large game animals like bison declined, ushering in a move toward hunting smaller game. Indians of this new era – the early to late Archaic Periods (6500 B.C. – 1000 A.D.), began relying more on plants they gathered for clothing, shelter, and food. By the end of the Late Prehistoric Period (A.D. 700 –1535), Spanish mission priests traveling through the area reported small bands of nomadic peoples they called the Chizo living in the high mountains. This society marks the beginning of the Historic Era (AD 1535 to Present) and it’s for them that the Chisos Mountains are named. By the 1700s the Chizo Indians were either absorbed or forced out of the region all together by the Mescalero Apaches, who were then themselves displaced from Big Bend by another American Indian group—the Comanche. Even though the Comanche did not make their homes in the region, they maintained a strong presence here for nearly 100 years. Throughout the 1800s, reports were continually heard of a well-worn trail cutting across the landscape toward Mexico. The Comanche Trail , as it was known, served as a major thoroughfare back and forth between the two countries. By 1875 even the mighty Comanche could not stem the tide of American settlers moving into the region and they too were eventually forced from the Big Bend.

The Historic Era began around AD 1535 with the first Spanish explorations into this portion of North America. The expedition of Cabeza de Vaca passed near the Big Bend. Other expeditions followed in search of gold and silver, farm and ranch land, religious converts and Indian slaves. In an attempt to protect their northern frontier, the Spaniards established a line of “presidios,” or forts along the Rio Grande in the late 1700s. These were soon abandoned because they could not effectively stop Indian raids into Mexico. Less study has been made of the Mexican occupation of the Big Bend after the abandonment of the presidios, but when Anglo settlers began arriving in the 1800s, they found Mexican families who had occupied the area since the late 1700s, still farming the floodplains of the Rio Grande. In 1848, with the resolution of the war between Mexico and the United States, the border between the two countries was clearly defi ned and American occupation of the Big Bend began in earnest.

In the 1880s, ranchers migrated into Big Bend to raise livestock in such numbers that the land was soon overgrazed. By the late 1890’s with the discovery of mercury (also known as quicksilver), mining operations replaced ranching as the main economic force of the region. Settlers were enticed to the area by work in the mines or by work in support of the mines like farming or cutting timber for the smelters. Some communities like Terlingua developed directly around the mine sites, while other settlements like Castolon sprang up on the fertile Rio Grande floodplain. These settlements were mainly small groups of families living and farming in the same area and they were only as successful as the land would allow. By the 1930s, however, many people began to agree that this area of contrast, beauty, and solitude was worth preserving for future generations. To that end, the State of Texas created the Texas Canyons State Park in 1933, and began developing facilities with the help of the Civilian Conservation Corps . In 1935 the federal government passed legislation to establish a national park. Subsequently, the State deeded the land to the federal government and on June 12th, 1944 Big Bend National Park became a reality .

Big Bend National Park is dotted with old buildings and ruins of past settlements. By visiting these sites and ruins, you can get a glimpse of early life in what seems like an uninhabitable environment. Many of these sites are one-of-a-kind because they occur only in the area of Big Bend National Park. What might seem like rusty, old trash to you has cultural signifi cance and has value because it helps tell the story of Big Bend. Please help the park protect these important resources by leaving them where you find them. If you find something that you think is particularly significant, then please take a picture of it and report the location to a Park Ranger.

During the second decade of the 20th century, there were several ranches near Glenn Spring, and the village was a social center.

In 1914, “Captain” C. D. Wood and Mr. W. K. Ellis built a factory near the spring to produce candelilla wax—another form of “liquid gold”. They employed 40–60 Mexican workers to operate the factory, and hired O.G. Compton to run the general store and post office. Candelilla, the wax plant, was the primary raw material needed for the wax business, and the Glenn Spring area not only had an abundance of the plant, but it also had water, another essential ingredient for the wax rendering process.

Candelilla is a perennial plant, with hundreds of gray-green stems (each somewhat smaller in diameter than a pencil), which grow vertically from the base. Rendering wax from this plant was hard and hot work. In 1916, wax workers were paid $1.00 per day. The workers boiled the stems in large vats of water, adding sulfuric acid to separate the wax from the stems. When the wax floated to the surface, the men skimmed it off and boiled it again to remove excess water and impurities. They let it cool, broke it into small blocks and put it in burlap bags for shipping. Two boilers provided the steam to cook the wax. Dried, cooked plants were used as fuel to keep the boilers going. Processed candelilla wax is a very durable substance. It is still used in some quality shoe polishes, car waxes, chewing gum, and lip balm.

Bandit raids along the border initiated the U.S. government to send troops to the Big Bend region as early as 1911. On the warm summer night of May 5, 1916, there were nine soldiers stationed at Glenn Springs. Around 11:00 PM, after everyone had gone to bed, Mr. Compton, the storekeeper, was awakened by several armed Mexicans at his door. When they inquired if there were any soldiers in the village, he said no, hoping that they would go away. Compton was afraid they would return, however, and took his small daughter to a Mexican woman across the draw and asked her to keep the child for the night.

He was returning for his nine-year-old son, Tommy, when the raid began. Captain Rodriguez Ramirez, a Mexican bandit, led his men into a dark, sleeping Glenn Springs, each man well-armed and shouting “Viva Carranza” and “Viva Villa” as he rode. How many Mexican raiders accompanied Ramirez or to whom they pledged their allegiance is not known. In Mexico during these unsettled times, it made little difference to the followers whether the leader was a Carranza or a Villa sympathizer, for political affiliations made little difference if the men were provided with food.

Regardless of their numbers or affiliation, there were too many for the nine cavalrymen attempting to defend the village. These nine men of Troop A of the 14th Cavalry were sleeping in their tents when the bandits appeared. Upon hearing the shouts and commotion, they fled in the dark to an adobe building nearby where they would have more protection. For nearly three hours, the soldiers exchanged fire with the bandits and were able to hold off much of the attacking force. When the Mexican raiders realized that they were not making any headway they set fire to the thatched roof of the building. Pieces of the burning roof began to fall on the necks and heads of the men. As the oven-hot room filled with smoke someone yelled “run for it” and the soldiers fled from the adobe inferno to a nearby hill. Three of the soldiers were killed and all but two were either seriously wounded or badly burned. When Mr. Compton returned, he found that his son had been fatally shot. Mr. and Mrs. Ellis were awakened by the shooting and fled to the hills where they hid through the night.

Captain Wood also heard the commotion at this home three miles away at Robbers Roost. At first, he thought it was the celebrations of Cinco de Mayo, but upon seeing the glow of the burning buildings, he and his neighber, Mr. Oscar de Montel, set out in the dark to see what was going on. They lost their way through the rough terrain and arrived after most of the shooting had ceased. Upon arriving, they were fired upon and quickly took cover till daybreak.

The Glenn Springs raid received national attention in major newspapers across the country. President Wilson issued orders for the mobilization of the Texas National Guard to aid federal forces along the border. A permanent cavalry camp was established at Glenn Springs in 1916 and remained until 1920, when the border situation improved.

For three years after the raid, the rebuilt village persisted, but even with increased military support, it was difficult to find and keep good workers. After World War I, the price of wax plummeted and that seemed to be the last straw for Ellis and Wood. In 1919, they sold their property to a rancher named Burcham. When Ellis and Wood left, so did almost everyone else and the village dissolved. Other ranchers followed Burcham and the land changed hands many times until it was acquired by the State of Texas for donation to the Federal government for a national park.

The history and culture of Big Bend is intertwined with the history and culture of Mexico. This land was part of Mexico until the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in 1848. The earliest settlers were Mexicans who established residence here in the early 1800s. Yet the traditional history of the Big Bend overlooks these settlers of Mexican origins; it focuses mainly on Anglo-American settlement that took place mostly in the late 1800s.

Many details of the history of Mexican settlement here have been lost with time. Most people of Mexican origins in Big Bend had few opportunities for formal education; therefore, few historical records were kept. Available historical records show that by the time that Anglo-American settlers moved into this region in the late 1800s, Mexican and Mexican American families were already living here.

Mexican “vaqueros,” Spanish for cowboys, were renowned for their horsemanship and knowledge of cattle and began raising cattle along the Rio Grande in the 1830s. The Mexican stockmen were familiar with the dry climate of the Chihuahuan Desert, and they raised a rugged, thin-blooded variety of longhorn that was well adapted to desert conditions. Attracted to the grazing lands and abundant spring water of the Big Bend, Mexican vaqueros drove their herds north across the Rio Grande where some established successful ranching operations. Cresencio Sanchez and Liberato Gamboa of San Vicente, Texas, became permanent employees of Fred Rice, who ranched at Grapevine Hills. Fred Rice often noted what outstanding horsemen these Mexican American cowboys were. Viviano Castillo, known for his skill in masonry, built a large water tank at Chilicotal spring for John Rice. Simon Celaya, originally from San Luis, Potosi, Mexico, worked for many years as a ranch hand for Coleman Babb at the K-Bar ranch.

Other Big Bend residents of Mexican descent chose not to work for local ranchers. They established homesteads and survived by subsistence farming and raising sheep and goats. These settlers developed ingenious methods for farming in the desert. Armed with an intimate knowledge of which plants could succeed in the desert climate, those who homesteaded near the Rio Grande or desert springs would use these water sources to irrigate their crops. Others, located far from water, farmed seasonally by locating their farms near washes and diverting water from flash floods during the rainy season. Many supplemented their incomes by harvesting candellia, a desert plant from which they would render a fine wax, by baling hay and selling it to the local military and mining camps, by cutting and hauling wood to nearby settlements, or by trapping and trading furs at local trading posts.

By 1898, mining activities in Mexico’s Sierra del Carmen led to the settlement of Boquillas, Mexico. A group of Texas investors worked with the Puerto Rico Mining Company in Mexico to move large quantities of lead, zinc and silver ore to the railroad in Marathon, Texas. Utilizing Mexican and Mexican American labor, they constructed a cable tram across the Rio Grande that spanned six miles of desert terrain. The tramway was successful until the mine closed shortly after World War I. Some settlers of Mexican cultural origin worked as independent freighters, hauling ore, supplies, water, wood, mail and passengers to and from the mining towns. Mexican mules were considered superior in strength to American breeds and their drivers were familiar with their animals and the desert. In the Boquillas area, the Gonzalez brothers of Saltillo Mexico, and the Ben Gallego family of Alpine, Texas, dominated the industry

After some of the mines in the Boquillas area closed in 1919, farming along the river floodplain became the major activity of the area. Martin Solis and his son Benito were among the most prominent farmers in the area. Farming along the Rio Grande was also an important way of life in the Castolon area. Mexican families began moving to the area in the mid-1800s, and in the early 1900’s, Martin Solis was among the first to farm there. When other farming settlements appeared near Castolon, Cipriano Hernandez opened a small store where he sold supplies to his neighbors. Today, the store building is known as the Alvino House, and is the oldest known adobe structure standing in the park.

Stockmen, homesteaders, farmers, wax makers, trappers, goatherds, miners and freighters, the settlers of the Big Bend whose ancestors came from Mexico transformed their dedicated labor into a way of life that sustained them through the generations. The original settlers of the Big Bend region, although almost forgotten by history, lived and died on this land. They maintained their unique culture despite changes to the region’s government, economy, and language. The culture of the settlers of Mexican origin still plays a major role in the Big Bend region. Today we find the descendants of the original settlers of the Big Bend taking their rightful place in society. Heirs to a culture that emphasizes the importance of family, hard work, and the spirit of survival, they continue to exemplify the values that are their cultural legacy.

After the beautiful brilliance of spring flowers, summer's blistering heat and the sporadic but fierce late-summer thunderstorms, the desert was primed for the greatest challenge it had yet to undergo. The full moon of September rose ominously over the Deadhorse Mountains and heralded the arrival of the Comanche Indians. During the time of the "Comanche Moon," this nation of nomads pulled up settlements and departed the buffalo-hunting grounds on the Great Plains in what is now Kansas, Oklahoma, and the Texas Panhandle. They had practiced their equestrian skills during extended hunts and sharpened their reflexes in preparation for this exhaustive journey and the lifestyle they would adopt along the way. Their route forked after leaving Horsehead Crossing on the Pecos River and forged its way southward. By the time they entered Persimmon Gap, the trail had already acquired lasting characteristics from decades of use during migrations such as this one.

The Comanches at this point had entered the territories of other tribes: the Chisos and Apaches, who had already mastered survival in this harsh Chihuahuan Desert. It was time once again for the annual conflict to begin anew. The Chisos Indians, a hunting-gathering-farming band, were no match to the extremely mobile Comanche warriors astride their mounts.

The Apaches, on the other hand, had a firm grip on existence on this particular patch of earth and knew its secrets intimately. They would harass the small bands of Comanche raiders and ambush the larger parties at springs and tinajas. But eventually, even the Apaches dropped back into their hiding places and let the invaders pass.

The Comanches proceeded to their weakest opponents of all - the Spanish and their line of fortifications, or presidios, along el Rio Bravo del Norte (the Brave River of the North). The small frontier villages that had been established by Spain in the 1700s were ripe for "harvest" by the Comanches. It was easy for them to avoid the widely-spaced presidios and small garrisons of Spanish soldiers to raid any settlement meeting their needs. Livestock and prisoners were herded back across the river northward along the Great Comanche Trail through Persimmon Gap again. The "booty" that did not survive the forced march left their bleached bones as stark monuments to others passing through the area. Coupled with the practice of setting fires behind them to drive off any pursuit that might follow, the Comanches produced a major thoroughfare a mile wide in some places and "so well beaten that it appeared that suitable engineers had constructed it." Few explorers failed to mention this scar upon seeing it cut across the heart of the Big Bend.

Although visible signs of the trail no longer exist, today as you travel in your modern-day "covered wagon" down U.S. 385 from Marathon through Persimmon Gap, you follow the route of the original Comanche Trail. The low pass provided a natural route from north to south for native peoples to travel.

Historically, the trading post in a remote frontier had to be all things to all people. So it was in the southern Big Bend with the Castolon store. From 1902 until the establishment of the park in 1944, it served, though not always by virtue of legal designation, as consulate, sheriffs' department, notary public, bank, and a source of medical, hardware, and ranch supplies in northern Mexico and the southern Big Bend.

A ninety-year history of practical diplomacy in an isolated and often troubled border region is hardly what one expects from the local convenience mart. And while the original founder of the store never planned it that way, later owners recognized the role the store could play in area practices and politics.

In 1901, Cipriano Hernandez had the idea of farming the fertile floodplain around Castolon and selling his produce to the miners in Terlingua, just up the creek. The east end of the rambling adobe building now known as the "Alvino House" was the original Castolon store, where Hernandez vended his melons, pumpkins, squash, and beans. In 1914, he sold the property to Clyde Buttrill, who hired James Sublett to manage the farm and store. Sublett and his family moved into the house, and later moved the store into larger building located across from Cottonwood Campground at Old Castolon. Several subsequent managers ran the store in this location until the spring of 1919. In 1918, Howard Perry, owner of the Chisos Mining Company in Terlingua, decided to get into the farming and ranching business as well. He formed a partnership with Wayne Cartledge and founded La Harmonia Company, which bought the Castolon Store in 1919. Cartledge, with his son Eugene, managed it.

Cartledge picked the name fully aware that life was not always harmonious. Border troubles enlivened the years 1910-1920. To protect the citizenry and the mines, the U.S. Government sent cavalry and Texas sent rangers to Castolon. La Harmonia Company became a stabilizing influence largely due to the efforts of Wayne Cartledge.

Northern Mexico at that time represented an extreme in isolation. La Harmonia Company was the most accessible wholesaler for many small Mexican stores in the region. Cartledge used his connections with the Chisos Mining Company to secure low prices through bulk orders. He was also a middleman between suppliers from interior Mexico and buyers as far away as New York in the candelilla and fur trades. La Harmonia Company kept money and valuables for local clients, detained criminals, resolved financial tangles, and obtained the postal contract in 1922, shortly after moving into the newly completed but never occupied Army barracks in Castolon. When the county sheriffs had business across the river, Cartledge would use his influence to enlist Mexican cooperation. Local residents and business people found the store--and its keeper--to be a valuable asset to the community.

The Castolon store changed management and got its fourth storekeeper in 1961, when Cartledge sold his property to the National Park Service for inclusion in Big Bend National Park. National Park Concessions, Inc., took over from the Cartledges and began running the store as a park concessioner. Today, park concessioner Aramark manages the Castolon Store year-round for visitors.

In the past thirty years, a few changes have taken place. The ice box was converted to electric. A microwave oven now heats sandwiches on the counter. Candelilla wax and furs have given way to snacks and tourist information as major commodities at the store, and the area is now sought after for rare bird sightings rather than farmland. Although still isolated by most American standards, telephones and paved roads now link Castolon to the outside world. Still, much remains the same.

Judging from the line-up of cars in the parking lot and the foot traffic up and down the hill toward the river, the La Harmonia Company Store is still the center of activity for travelers through and residents of the southwestern tip of Big Bend.

On a hot, windy evening in May 2019, a fire in Mexico jumped the Rio Grande. With temperatures around 110, the flames spread rapidly along the river and embers showered the Castolon Historic District, igniting the La Harmonia Store and Latrine. Both building suffered extensive damage. Both buildings are closed at this time. Plans are underway for the next chapters in Castolon's history. The National Park Service and partners are consulting with adobe experts, historic architects, and engineers to determine what may be salvaged and rehabilitated.

In addition to the store, Castolon includes the oldest known adobe structure in Big Bend National Park (the Alvino House), another store building (Old Castolon), and numerous adobe ruins. For more information visit the Castolon page.

In the early 1900s Glenn Spring was the location of a candelilla wax manufacturing operation and accompanying village. It also became a military outpost after a violent nighttime raid in 1916.

The Hot Springs Historic District preserves a rich history of human occupation from thousands of years ago to the not-so-distant past. Visitors can also enjoy a soak in an active hot spring a short walk from the area's historic structures.

Distinct from other airfields in the area, the Johnson Ranch airfield was established solely for its strategic location, where combat troops and aircraft could be deployed in case of a border emergency. For more information visit the Johnson's Ranch page.

Abandoned since the 1940s, and isolated by its remote location in the middle of Big Bend National Park, the Mariscal Mine is the best preserved mercury mining site in the state of Texas, and is a listed historic district on the National Register of Historic Places. For more information visit the Mariscal Mine page.

Longhorns of the Big Bend (1962) Written by noted NPS historian Robert Utley, this report provides an overview of the early cattle industry in the greater Big Bend region. Includes information related to Fort Davis. Read it!

The Big Bend of the Rio Grande: A Guide to the Rocks, Geologic History, and Settlers of the Area of Big Bend National Park (1968) Written by Dr. Ross Maxwell, who served as the first superintendent of the park, this book contains a stunning amount of detail on many subjects. Read it!

Hot Springs Historic Structures Report (1968) Summary of historic resources in the Hot Springs area, based largely on J.O. Langford's memoir. Includes historic photographs and a couple of inaccurate statements. Read it!

Soldiers, Ranchers and Miners in the Big Bend (1968) Written in three parts by regional historian Clifford Casey, this report details the Glenn Springs Raid of 1916, the Homer Wilson Ranch, and the Mariscal Mine. This report contains a wealth of material regarding the early 20th Century history of the Big Bend region. Read it!

The Impact of Human Use Upon the Chisos Basin and Adjacent Lands (1974) This report documents the condition of the Chisos Basin in the early 1970s, after forty years of impacts related to park development. Also includes recommendations to alleviate negative impacts, many of which have been implemented in the decades since the report was published. Read it!

The Mather-Albright Years: National Parks Come to America (1980) Written by the park's second superintendent, Lon Garrison, and originally published by the Big Bend Natural History Association , this short book provides a short, personal perspective on the early years of the National Park Service. Read it!

Ecology of the Carmen Mountains White-Tailed Deer of the Big Bend (1981) Research report exploring the distribution, habitat, food habits and other topics related to the population of the Carmen Mountains white-tailed deer who reside in the Chisos Mountains. Read it!

Presidios of the Big Bend Area (1990) Based on field work at Presidio sites in Mexico in the mid-1980s, this report provides context and conditions on two Spanish Presidios in the Big Bend area. Read it!

Landscape of Ghosts, River of Dreams: An Administrative History of Big Bend National Park (2002) The most recent work on the history of the park, the administrative history focuses on the establishment of the park and management decisions that have influenced the park. Devotes many chapters to the 1930s and 40s. Read it!

The Big Bend National Park Project, 1940 This document provides an introduction to the possible park area, a discussion of projected park facilities (including a CCC-built lodge in the Chisos Basin and a dude ranch at K-Bar), and photographs and drawings showcasing the geology of the region. Read it!

Official Park Brochure, 1944 Brochure produced for visitors during Big Bend's first year of operations. Provides an overview of natural and cultural history as well as the recommendation that, "those who visit . . . should be prepared to camp, bring their own food, bedding, and tents." Read it!

The Backcountry, 1953 Written by Chief Ranger George Sholly and Etta Koch, this document was the park's first attempt to provide guidelines to visitors for backcountry use. Note : many of the rules included in this document have changed dramatically in the fifty years since this was written. Read it!

Lost Mine Trail Guide, 1956 Brochure for the park's oldest self-guiding trail. Includes a telling of the legend of the Lost Mine as well as vintage travel recommendations. Read it!

Visitor Information, 1957 Mimeograph page of basic visitor information. Includes descriptions of park facilities and attractions, with a number of differences as compared to the modern experience. Read it!

Living in Big Bend, 1958 Mimeographed handout intended for National Park Service employees moving to the Big Bend. Includes descriptions of park facilities existing at the time and explores the difficulties of living at an isolated park. and attractions, with a number of differences as compared to the modern experience. Read it!

By 1930, many people who had enjoyed the prosperity of the Roaring Twenties found themselves in soup lines and tattered clothes. Sputtering Model Ts rumbled down dusty roads, carrying passengers and their few possessions toward dreams of a better tomorrow. The stock market crash had devastated the nation’s economy and left many in dire straits. Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected president by a landslide in 1932 with his promise of a “new deal” for the American people. Within days of his inauguration, FDR called Congress into special session to work on emergency legislation. An alphabet soup of agencies and programs was created. Roosevelt kept his promise and the New Deal was born.

One of these programs was the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), designed to reduce unemployment while also conserving natural resources. The CCC changed the lives of several million people, along with Big Bend National Park. Nicknamed “Roosevelt’s Tree Army,” the CCC was operated through the cooperative efforts of four departments. The Department of Labor oversaw the selection of enrollees, the Army ran the camps, and the Interior and Agriculture departments provided work projects.

Initially, unmarried men between the ages of 18 and 25 and from families on relief could apply. They enlisted for six months, with an option to reenlist for up to two years. The “CCC boys” worked for $30 a month, $25 of which was sent to their families. Eventually, “Local Experienced Men” (LEMs) and World War I veterans could enroll. Although a few work camps were established for women, most CCC enrollees were men.

If you have driven, hiked, or slept in the Chisos Mountains, you have experienced CCC history. In May 1933, Texas Canyons State Park was established; it was later renamed Big Bend State Park. Roads and trails were needed for the new park, and the CCC provided an ideal workforce. A year after the park was established, 200 young men, 80 percent of whom were Hispanic, arrived to work in the Chisos Mountains. The CCC's first job was to set up camp and develop a reliable water supply. The CCC boys faced many challenges, living in tents 85 miles from the nearest town, and facing extreme temperatures and weather. Eventually barracks replaced tents in the area of today’s Basin Campground.

In the early 1930s, the CCC built an all-weather access road into the Chisos Mountains Basin. They surveyed and built the seven-mile road using only picks, shovels, rakes, and a dump truck, which they loaded by hand. They scraped, dug, and blasted 10,000 truck loads of earth and rock and constructed 17 stone culverts, still in use today along the Basin road. In 1937 the camp was relocated 175 miles north to Balmorhea State Park, where the CCC built the "world’s largest spring-fed swimming pool.”

A second CCC camp was established in Big Bend in 1940. This group built the Lost Mine Trail, a store, and four stone and adobe cottages still used as lodging today. These CCC boys surveyed the park boundary and established trail and facility locations. Plans to build a large resort hacienda and hospital in the Basin were abandoned with the onset of World War II. The camp closed in March 1942, signalling the end of an era in Big Bend. In June 1944, partially as a result of CCC development, Big Bend became a national park.

If you think Big Bend is isolated today, imagine what it must have been like in the 1930s, before air conditioned comfort and paved roads. Many CCC boys were away from their families for the first time. Because the camps were run by the Army, they had typical barracks and a mess hall. Legend has it that those complaining about food quality had to climb a steep hill before the next meal. Located directly north of the Chisos Basin Visitor Center, the hill is still known as “Appetite Peak.” The camp also offered many recreational opportunities. There was a museum, woodworking shop, photo darkroom, and movies were shown twice a month. In 1935, one of the barracks was converted to a classroom and the CCC began to provide education in addition to employment.

Nationwide, the CCC operated 4,500 camps. More than three million people enrolled between 1933 and 1942. The CCC advanced natural resource conservation by decades, and provided education, training,and experience for a generation of young men and women. Since then, millions of visitors to Big Bend have enjoyed the work of the CCCs.

Drive to the Chisos Mountains, hike the trails, and remember the young men who worked there many years ago.

The National Park Service has a fundamental responsibility for preserving and interpreting many of the Nation's most valued cultural and natural resources. Yet it also has a responsibility to preserve and analyze its own history. The Service has an obligation to maintain a thorough, accurate record of its policies, decisions, and activities in part because these things reflect how America chooses to preserve and present important remnants of its cultural and natural history. Administrative histories are a critical element if the Service is to record and preserve its own history. Current policies and decisions cannot be formulated properly without reference to past experience.

Service managers and staff increasingly seek to learn more about their own parks. By learning more about problems their predecessors faced, managers at all levels can be better informed about contemporary issues and bring greater awareness to their policy and program decisions.

Administrative histories are the most effective way to convey this knowledge. They relate how particular parks and functions of the Service originated and how they evolved. Although many are of wider interest, their primary audience is Park Service personnel. In this context, “administrative history” is used broadly to cover movements leading to park establishment, legislative background, and other contributing developments beyond administration in the strict sense.

Landscape of Ghosts, River of Dreams: An Administrative History of Big Bend National Park (2002) Covering park establishment and early park development in detail.

On May 22, 2019, a fire in Mexico jumped the Rio Grande. With temperatures around 110°F the fire spread rapidly. Wind gusts showered embers across the Castolon Historic District, igniting the latrine building and barracks (which housed the La Harmonia Store and Visitor Center) and threatening the other buildings. The shade structure served as a wick drawing flames into the attic. Despite valiant efforts, structural and wildland fire crews were unable to safely extinguish the fire before both buildings suffered extensive damage. Some 950 acres on both sides of the river burned before the fire would be fully contained 13 days later. Through extensive efforts in extremely difficult conditions, firefighters saved the many other historic buildings and artifacts, as well as vital utilities and the nearby Cottonwood Campground. Fortunately, there were no injuries associated with this tragic loss.

In the days after the fire, cultural specialists sifted the debris to save many historic items, including cast iron stoves, post office box doors, keys, and even the iconic La Harmonia sign that hung above the door.

Although damaged, Castolon remains a rich remnant of Big Bend’s pioneer and military past. Plans are underway for the next chapters in Castolon’s history. The National Park Service is consulting with adobe experts, historic architects, and structural engineers to determine how much of these structures may be salvaged and rehabilitated. Temporary services have returned. A temporary structure now serves as the store, and the Castolon Visitor Center has reopened in an adjacent building. The Big Bend Conservancy has established a Castolon Recovery Fund and will assist the park in designing a plan for the future of this historic site. Stay tuned as we move forward in a way that continues to honor and share the rich history of this area.

To learn more about fires and fire management in your National Parks visit the fire homepage . To view currently active fires in the United States visit inciweb .

A Homesteaders Story During the early 1900s, the motto was "Go West Young Man." In 1909, J.O. Langford heeded this call and headed for West Texas with his family. He came to the area to regain his health. As a child, living in Mississippi, he contracted malaria and reoccurring bouts with this disease ravaged his body. In the lobby of a hotel in Alpine, Texas, he heard tales of a spring that would cure anything:

"Stomach trouble, rheumatism, all sorts of skin diseases," the old man vowed. "I wonder why it is that I've never heard of those springs before. It looks like somebody would have tried to develop them like they've done at Hot Springs, Arkansas," the Mississippian replied. "Nothing down there but rattlesnakes and bandit Mexicans. And it's too far away---that damned country promises more and gives less than any place I ever saw," the old man replied.

After verifying the story with other townspeople, and without even looking at the land, J.O. knew he had to have that spring. He rushed to the county surveyor's office and filed his claim under the Homestead Act. Two weeks later the Langford family received word that the claim was theirs.

The Homestead Act stated that one had to have 3 years of continuous occupancy and $300 in improvements to the land in addition to a minimum bid of $1.50 per acre. Others had filed on this land but no one had been able to meet the requirements of the Act.

With his wife, Bessie, an 18 month old daughter, and a baby on the way, the family began an eleven day journey to reach their new home. Today, the trip from Alpine takes about 2 hours. Upon their arrival, the Langfords discovered Cleofas Natividad, his wife, and their ten children living and farming on their land. At first the Langfords pondered what to do about these "squatters." Then, they realized that this land had probably been home to this family for generations. Cleofas turned out to be the best neighbor anyone could have asked for, always there to help in a time of need.

Once J.O. had regained his health by taking a 21 day treatment of bathing and drinking the spring water, he opened the springs to other bathers. The cost was 10 cents per day or $2.00 for the whole 21 day treatment. In addition to running the bathhouse, he became a schoolteacher, a self taught doctor, and a postman.

The Hot Springs was more than just a place to restore health; it was also a meeting place for people from all walks of life, from both sides of the river. It was a prelude to the tourism that would come with the establishment of Big Bend National Park.

Today, visitors can take a walk back in time with a visit the Hot Springs Historic District. Pictographs are visible along the cliff wall, and several of the buildings have been preserved. You can also soak in the 105°F water that bubbles up from a hole in the old foundation of the bathhouse.

"Histories never conclude; they just pause their prose. Their stories are, if they are truthful, untidy affairs, resistant to windings-up and sortings-out. They beat raggedly on into the future..." Simon Schama

Big Bend is a gift from those who came before us. Often referred to as Texas' Gift to the Nation , Big Bend is famous for its natural resources and recreational opportunities, the park is also rich in cultural history. Native peoples lived in and/or passed through this area for thousands of years. Their presence is evidenced by pictographs and archeological sites . In more recent history (the last 500 years) Texas has been claimed by six different nations! The Big Bend has been a home to people for many centuries, but knowledge of the Rio Grande among non-Indians dates back less than 150 years. Spanish people crossed the Rio Grande in the 16th and 17th centuries searching for gold, silver, and fertile land. Comanche Indians crossed the river in the 19th century, traveling to and from Mexico with their raiding parties. Mexican settlers began farming on both banks of the river’s floodplain around 1900. Anglo-Americans joined in the farming after 1920, when boundary unrest ended. Cotton and food crops were grown around Castolon and what is now Rio Grande Village, even after the park was established. Today, you can drive along portions of the Comanche Trail , the same route Comanche warriors once traveled on raids into Mexico, or you can visit the site of La Harmonia Store at Castolon where locals (and visitors) have shopped for eighty years. From archeological sites dating back nearly 10,000 years, to ranches, wax camps, military outposts, and mining operations from the Twentieth Century, Big Bend can be a great place to "discover" history.

Wide-ranging ecosystems within the Big Bend provide habitat for more than 450 species of birds , 75 species of mammals , 56 species of reptiles , and 11 species of amphibians . Included are more than 100 miles of low-elevation river corridor, thousands of acres of Chihuahuan desert with a scattering of desert oases, a transition zone of upland shrubs, grasses, and junipers, and the higher (and cooler) elevations of the Chisos Mountains, a sky island wholly contained within Big Bend National Park.

The Rio Grande is the park's most prominent water source. The river supports 40 species of fish, several species of turtles, beaver, and numerous species of waterfowl (both residents and migrating species). In addition, the river's water is channeled through Rio Grande Village and Cottonwood Campground. Routine irrigation along the floodplain maintains large stands of cottonwood, ash, and sycamore. These areas have been civilized for our benefit, but because the river corridor has been expanded beyond its natural boundary, many animals are able to take advantage. Golden-fronted woodpeckers are a common sighting, but black hawks and gray hawks also nest in these areas.

The term "desert" readily conjures a mental image of an environment nearly devoid of life—a landscape of arid desolation. But in fact, there is an amazing diversity of resident species whose well-adapted characteristics allow them to not only survive, but also thrive in hot, dry settings. Most of these animals go unnoticed since so many are nocturnal by nature (they prefer the nighttime hours when temperatures are much cooler and conditions are not as dry). Nocturnal desert animals include the kit fox, ringtail, bobcat, kangaroo rat, and more than a dozen species of bats. Other animals such as mule deer, coyotes, badger, blacktail jackrabbits, and desert cottontails may be seen in early morning or at dusk.

Desert reptiles include the western coachwhip, diamondback rattlesnake, bullsnake, southwestern earless lizard, southern prairie lizard, crevice spiny lizard, and the checkered whiptail. Lizards are diurnal, and are often observed along park trails. Scorpions and desert centipedes are nocturnal hunters that search for prey during the night. After summer rains, male tarantulas are out searching for mates. The rest of the year, tarantulas rarely leave the shelter of their burrows.

A lonely stand of trees (usually cottonwoods) out in the desert clearly marks the presence of an oasis. Riparian conditions flourish in places where there is water, and these rare areas support unique plants and animals as well as desert residents. Javelinas frequent springs, taking full advantage of dense thickets that provide coveted shade and protection. Nocturnal mammals such as skunks and raccoons can also be found here. Dugout Wells and Sam Nail Ranch are two such oases, and two of the premier locations in the park for bird watching.

Rocky canyons and cliff pouroffs provide suitable habitat for ringtails and rock squirrels, and a variety of reptiles including rock and black-tailed rattlesnakes, mountain patchnose snakes, Trans-pecos copperheads, and tree lizards.

Ephemeral springs in the high country support big-tooth maple, drooping juniper, oak, and ponderosa pine. Coupled with cooler temperatures—on average, ten degrees cooler than the desert below—the forest habitat is perfect for black bears, Carmen white-tailed deer, Mexican jays, and the Colima warbler. Big Bend Wildlife Photo Gallery

Studying and managing wildlife is seldom an easy task, but wildlife management along the border presents special challenges. Observing wildlife in the U.S. may tell only half the story, since many migratory birds, bats, and insects spend their winters deep in Mexico.

Developed Campgrounds There are four campgrounds in Big Bend National Park. The National Park Service (NPS) operates three developed frontcountry campgrounds that provide drinking water and restroom facilities. In addition, a full hookup RV camping area is operated by the park concessioner, Aramark.

For any questions regarding developed campgrounds, please contact us at 432-477-1121. NPS Campgrounds Chisos Basin Campground (Located in the center of the park in the Chisos Mountains) Open. Reservations REQUIRED. Rio Grande Village Campground (Located near the Rio Grande on the east side of the park) OPEN. Reservations REQUIRED. Cottonwood Campground (Located near the Rio Grande on the west side of the park) Closed for summer Concession Campground

Backcountry Camping For visitors with rugged vehicles, or the willingness to leave the road behind and backpack into the wild, Big Bend provides options for backcountry camping. No dispersed camping or "boondocking" is allowed in Big Bend National Park. All campers must be in designated campsites with a permit.

A backcountry permit is required for all backcountry camping and river trips. Permits for most designated backcountry campsites ( Chisos Backpacking Campsites & Primitive Roadside Campsites ) are usually available online through www.recreation.gov . Due to large amounts of rain and the resulting road closures, until further notice all backcountry campsites can only be obtained in person at Panther Junction Visitor Center. Permits for desert backpacking and primitive roadside sites along the Maverick Road and remote River Road and Old Ore Road are available in person only at Panther Junction Visitor Center.

Backpacking Group Size Limit An organized group or individual party may not exceed a 15 person limit . Organized Groups over 15 will require a Special Use Permit In the Chisos Mountains: There is currently only one Chisos backpacking campsite that can accommodate a group of 15. Groups may split into separate campsites - however the 15 person size limit cannot be exceeded. (A group is limited to a total of 15 people in the High Chisos at one time.) In the desert: Groups over 15 people will also need to split up and backpack into separate, non-adjacent zones.

Camping Stay Limits Visitors are welcome to stay in the park up to 14 consecutive nights in either a front or backcountry site, with a limit of 28 total nights in the park in a calendar year. Campers can occupy a specific site up to 14 total nights in a year . EXCEPTION: During the busy season from January 1–April 15, visitors are limited to a total of 14 nights in the park . Campground Regulations

There are four campgrounds in Big Bend National Park. The National Park Service (NPS) operates three developed frontcountry campgrounds that provide drinking water and restroom facilities. In addition, a full hookup RV camping area is operated by the park concessioner, Aramark. Wood fires and ground fires are NOT allowed anywhere in the park. A charcoal fire in an above-ground grill is allowed; ashes must be packed out. Liquid-fuel stoves are allowed. For any questions regarding developed campgrounds, please contact us at 432-477-1121.

For visitors with rugged vehicles, or the willingness to leave the road behind and backpack into the wild, Big Bend provides options for backcountry camping. No dispersed camping or "boondocking" is allowed in Big Bend National Park. All campers must be in designated campsites with a permit. A backcountry permit is required for all backcountry camping and river trips.

If you have a rugged vehicle, primitive camping in designated roadside campsites might be for you.

For those who come prepared, there are hundreds of miles of trails, the Chisos Mountains, and desert expanses to explore with a pack.